A double ambiguity has been charged against Rawls’s difference PRINCIPLE (DP). Is it Maximin, Leximin, or something else? Usually, following A. Sen, scholars identify DP with the so-called Leximin. One argues here that one has to distinguish 1° the Leximin, 2° the Maximin (as rule of justice formally analogous to the maximin rule of decision), represented by the figure in L of the perfectly substitutable goods, and 3° the genuine DP. When the augmentation of inequality benefits the worse off, only Pareto-strong improvements are permitted. Leximin would also permit Pareto-weak improvements too (after the first maximum D), where only the richest improves: from (2, 3) to (2, 5), say. This is forbidden by DP. With two classes, unlike Maximin, DP has no curve of indifference and is always decisive, as Leximin is. For undecisive Rules of Justice, which admit indifferent curves, I propose to add a lexically secondary rule, to break ties. That move is able to clarify the links and the differences between on the one hand Maximin alone, with its typical indifference curves in L, and on the other hand, the DP properly understood and the Leximin, which both have no indifferent curves. With two classes of persons (best off/worse off), DP appears more egalitarian than Leximin, because it's secondary rule is MinIn (Minimization of Inequality). But the intuition behind the distinction is that it cannot possible “fair” that only the best off improves in a productive social cooperation.

COSMOLOGICAL argument is a general name that includes many different arguments, but all of its versions are a posteriori (contrary to ontological argument) and based on an apparently common feature of our experience (contrary to argument from design). I try to explain the structure of the COSMOLOGICAL argument via explaining some of its important versions. In this regard, Aquinas versions of COSMOLOGICAL argument; the arguments from motion, causation and contingency (the first three ways of his famous five ways) are discussed in details. Then I proceed to discuss Kalam COSMOLOGICAL argument, which is rooted in Islamic theological writings in COSMOLOGICAL argument, which is rooted in Islamic theological writings in the Middle Ages, and the argument from the PRINCIPLE of sufficient reason, respectively. Criticizing all of these versions, I conclude my paper by explaining and defending Avicenna"s version of COSMOLOGICAL argument.

In this paper, the analytical solutions of Brans-Dicke (B-D) equations with COSMOLOGICAL constant are presented, in which the equation of state of the universe is p=mΛ0ρ, under the assumption ΦRn=C between the B-D field and the scale factor of the universe. The flat (k=0) Robertson - Walker metric has been considered for the metric of the universe. These solutions are rich in the sense that they include dust B-D theory with COSMOLOGICAL constant, Nariai Λ=0 solutions, vacuum solutions of Ohanien - Tupper and inflationary Λ=0 solutions.

One of the most important arguments for the existence of god is the COSMOLOGICAL argument. Traditional developments of COSMOLOGICAL argument, which are based on the casual PRINCIPLE and PRINCIPLE of sufficient reason, have always faced many challenges. Hence, this argument has been constantly evolving throughout its history. "a new COSMOLOGICAL argument" is one of the contemporary versions of this argument, which is formulated to get rid of these challenges. This version attempts to provide a different and logical version of the COSMOLOGICAL argument, and this do by using the theories of possible worlds, modal notions and the theory of weak version of PRINCIPLE of sufficient reason. According to this new version of the COSMOLOGICAL argument, the necessity of God's existence for the universe is proved without the need for the strong version of PRINCIPLE of sufficient reason and without the need to prove the casual PRINCIPLE. Consequently, many of the traditional criticisms will be no objection to this argument. In this article, we will first explain the technical terms of this argument, then describe its formulation, and in the end we will discuss some of the most important critiques of this argument.

In the early twentieth century, along with the course of the new developments in physics, a paradigm, called quantum physics, was introduced, one PRINCIPLE of which is the PRINCIPLE of uncertainty. Its significance is in that some of its interpretations will lead to the denial of the philosophical PRINCIPLE of causality, and, subsequently, the challenges to the COSMOLOGICAL Arguments for the existence of God, which are based on the PRINCIPLE of causality. In this article, although we benefit from the bases of empirical sciences, our method of studying is a philosophical one. Our claim is that we can provide a concept of quantum physics that is consistent with the PRINCIPLE of causality. As a result of quantum physics, uncertainty would not be a challenge for COSMOLOGICAL argument. Though, from different perspectives, the philosophical critique of the PRINCIPLE of causality has yet to be addressed.

Among different arguments for the existence of God the Kalam COSMOLOGICAL argument is a very famous one which is elaborated by Professor William lane Craig. Craig claims that the universe began to exist, and then he continues to say: everything that begins to exist has a cause and therefore the universe has a cause. But how do we know that the universe began to exist? This premise forms the most important part of Craig’s contention, and he bolsters it by four arguments, the first two are driven from philosophy and the other two, which he prefers to name them “confirmations from sciences” are driven from sciences; the first one evokes to big bang theory and the seconds to the second PRINCIPLE of thermodynamic which are respectively adopted from cosmology and physics.In this essay we are going to survey Craig’s arguments and estimate their value and weight.

COSMOLOGICAL argument has been one of the most significant philosophical and theological arguments in religious traditions of different religions. In the western Theo-philosophical tradition, there have been both different interpretations and numerous criticisms presented about this argument. In this article, the most important of those arguments and their criticisms are both taken into consideration, and where necessary, the degree of validity of the criticisms has been pointed out, as well.

One of the effective schools of thought in the formation and coherence of the Chinese COSMOLOGICAL imagery is the “ Yin-Yang School” . “ Tsou Yen” and “ Tung-Chung Shu” , as the main characters of this school, adapted many beliefs of the ancient Chinese people and applied them in the systematic formulation of their cosmology. The findings of the present study, which is descriptive-analytic, show that, contrary to what may seem at first glance, “ Yin-Yang” as a school, is essentially unitary, not dualism-oriented. The cosmology of the “ Yin-Yang” school is more consistent with the pattern of issuance of multiplicity from unity; in that, according to it, Tao issues “ Taiji” or “ Great Ultimate” , and the “ Taiji” , issues the contradictory and complementary forces of the universe, “ Yin” and “ Yang” . The result of the “ Yin” and “ Yang” integration is the emergence of “ Wu-hsing” or “ Five Elements” . And at last, the plurality of innumerable phenomena is condidered the various formulas of the “ Wu-hsing” compound. The eschatological declarations of this school indicate that, at the end of the world, the multiplicity, as the issuance from the “ Tao” , goes back to their original source.

The main issue of this study, which was conducted with a descriptive-analytical method, was the critique and analysis of Naser Khosrow's COSMOLOGICAL ideas and the search for its origins. In Naser Khosrow’s view, the world, which consists of top-down levels, is divided into two main parts: the spiritual world and the physical world. The levels of innovation, general intellect, and general soul are located in the spiritual world, while the physical world is comprised of the six levels of hyle, general nature, body, planets, the fourfold natures, and the birth. The creation is purposeful and occurs through innovation. From the matter of truth arises the general intellect and from the general intellect arises the general soul, which is the mastermind of the universe and mediator of the transmission of the benefits of the general intellect to the lower levels. The hyle is the shadow of the general soul and from the view point of the general soul, in its shadow, the general nature emerges. The body is a substance, which has length, width, and depth. The planets and the celestial bodies are also the instruments of the general soul in the creation of the lower level universe and its governance. The fourfold elements of soil, water, wind, and fire establish the pillars and from their composition with the fourfold natures emerges the ternate of births. Human being is the last stage of existence and the aid of the general soul in reaching to the world of intellect and his (man’s) contentment is dependent on the teachings of Nātiq and Imam with the efforts of other levels of the Ismaili religion, which has a high position in the world system. The roots of some of Naser Khosrow's COSMOLOGICAL beliefs can be traced to the Greek scholars’ views and the works of Ismaili thinkers, such as Abu Ya'qub Sajestani and Hamid al-Din Kermani. Introduction COSMOLOGICAL studies discuss the world and its levels. This branch of philosophical studies proves to be productive in examining, criticizing, and analyzing COSMOLOGICAL ideas in ancient Persian literary texts, especially philosophical texts. Therefore, through COSMOLOGICAL studies, the poets’ and authors’ systems of thought and viewpoints towards the world are explicable. The main subject of this study was examination and analysis of Naser Khosrow’s COSMOLOGICAL thoughts and their origins and backgrounds. Naser Khosrow, the greatest Ismaili author and poet in Persian literature, sustains a homogeneous philosophical thought system, which is the outcome of his special experience and personal interest in the reflection on nations and people’s beliefs, his Ismaili ideology, his contemplation on the great Ismaili intellectual works, and investigation of the breeding grounds of their thoughts. Expounding the relationship between the existence and the creator, clarifying the levels of creation, and verifying the purposeful creation are the pivotal subjects in his works. Methodology To understand the theoretical grounds and the confines and scope of this investigation, which was conducted with a descriptive-analytical method, the authoritative works on the history of philosophy were first studied. Then, Naser Khosrow’s Divan and other prose works were scrutinized from the viewpoint of COSMOLOGICAL thoughts and subjects and the results were compiled under the general headings of spiritual world and physical world, each of which was comprised of several levels. In addition, referring to multiple Greek, neo-platonic, and Gnostic sources, as well as Ismaili thinkers’ works, the origins and backgrounds of a number of Naser Khosrow’s COSMOLOGICAL thoughts were uncovered. Discussion and Results From Naser Khosrow’s viewpoint, the existence is divided into physical and spiritual worlds. The spiritual world incorporates the levels of innovation, general intellect, and general soul. The creation starts with innovation. God orders the existence with His word and this order results in the emergence of the general intellect, which is immanent, luminous, immaterial in essence and action, stationery, and recognizing. The general intellect in turn generates the general soul, which is simple, spiritual, live, wise, and able. The general soul is the active cause of the physical world, which is created by means of the stars and celestial bodies. The physical world is comprised of the six levels of hyle, general nature, body, planets, the fourfold natures, and the birth. The hyle is rational and form-taker that stands after the soul. The general nature is also a soft essence, which protects all the types and forms. The body as the sixth level of the creation is a compound essence that is perceptible though the external senses. The stars and celestial bodies, which emerge through combination of the hyle and form, are the soft part of the world and essence of the fire. The four-fold elements arise from the dirty part of the hyle, which in combination with the four sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic temperaments, generate the compounds and levels of inanimate objects, plants, and animals. Human is at the ultimate level of the creation and possesses a speaking soul. The cycle of the creation starts with innovation and ends with the creation of human, who, by learning knowledge and applying the teachings of Sharia, returns to the rational world. In Naser Khosrow's worldview, Natiq, Imam, and other positions of the Ismaili religion play an important role in human’s ultimate felicity. Naser Khosrow's COSMOLOGICAL ideology is the result of his personal awareness, reflection on the Ismaili thinkers’ works, and probing into ancient sources, such as the Greek philosophers’ works or Gnostic and Neoplatonic sources.

In this paper we discuss the usual derivation of Hawking radiation for a spherical symmetric black hole and the problem connected with the appearance of high frequencies in the derivation of Hawking radiation. The important view of this paper is that problem may be overcomed if one takes the back reaction effect into account. We try to solve the problem by a heuristic method; this will confront us with the well known COSMOLOGICAL constant problem.